General Chemistry

1. Thermodynamics
   1. Laws of Thermodynamics
      1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
         1. Concept of thermal equilibrium
         2. Transitive property of temperature
      2. First Law of Thermodynamics
         1. Law of energy conservation
         2. Internal energy
         3. Heat and work interactions
         4. Mathematical formulation: ΔU = Q - W
         5. Applications to closed and open systems
      3. Second Law of Thermodynamics
         1. Direction of natural processes
         2. Entropy and irreversibility
         3. Statements of the second law
            1. Clausius statement
            2. Kelvin-Planck statement
         4. Concepts of heat engines and refrigerators
         5. Carnot cycle and its implications
      4. Third Law of Thermodynamics
         1. Behavior of entropy at absolute zero
         2. Implications for the unattainability of absolute zero
         3. The concept of residual entropy
   2. Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy
      1. Enthalpy (H)
         1. Definition and units
         2. Enthalpy changes: exothermic and endothermic reactions
         3. Standard enthalpy changes: formation and combustion
         4. Enthalpy diagrams and Hess's Law
      2. Entropy (S)
         1. Definition and units
         2. Statistical interpretation
         3. Entropy change and spontaneity
         4. Calculating entropy change for reversible and irreversible processes
      3. Gibbs Free Energy (G)
         1. Definition and units
         2. Relationship with spontaneity: ΔG < 0, ΔG = 0, ΔG > 0
         3. Standard Gibbs free energy of formation
         4. ΔG = ΔH - TΔS: its implications and applications
   3. Heat Capacity and Calorimetry
      1. Definitions of heat capacity, specific heat, and molar heat capacity
      2. Differences between constant pressure heat capacity (Cp) and constant volume heat capacity (Cv)
      3. Methods of calorimetry
         1. Coffee cup calorimetry
         2. Bomb calorimetry
         3. Calculation of enthalpy changes using calorimetric data
   4. Hess’s Law
      1. Principle of the conservation of energy in chemical reactions
      2. Use in calculating enthalpy changes for complex reactions
      3. Construction and interpretation of enthalpy cycles
   5. Applications of Thermodynamics
      1. Chemical thermodynamics
         1. Reaction spontaneity
         2. Equilibrium constants and temperature
      2. Physical Processes
         1. Phase transitions and phase diagrams
         2. Clapeyron and Clausius-Clapeyron equations for phase transitions
      3. Real-world systems
         1. Thermodynamics in engineering systems
         2. Environmental implications and energy efficiency
         3. Biological thermodynamics: ATP generation, biochemical reactions
   6. Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics
      1. Overview and basic concepts
      2. Phenomenological irreversible processes
      3. Coupled reactions and flows
      4. Applications in physics, chemistry, and biology
   7. Statistical Thermodynamics
      1. Connection between microscopic and macroscopic states
      2. Boltzmann distribution
      3. Partition functions and their importance
      4. Statistical interpretation of entropy
      5. Calculation of thermodynamic quantities from molecular properties