General Chemistry

1. States of Matter
   1. Introduction to States of Matter
      1. Definition and characteristics of states of matter
      2. Transition between states
      3. Role of temperature and pressure
   2. Solids
      1. Structure of solids
         1. Crystalline solids
            1. Unit cells and lattice structures
            2. Types of lattices: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, etc.
            3. Examples: ionic crystals, metallic crystals, covalent network solids, molecular solids
         2. Amorphous solids
            1. Characteristics of amorphous solids
            2. Examples: glass, plastics, gels
      2. Properties of solids
         1. Mechanical properties
            1. Hardness
            2. Malleability and ductility
            3. Elasticity and plasticity
         2. Thermal properties
            1. Thermal conductivity
            2. Melting point
         3. Electrical properties
            1. Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators
      3. Phase transitions involving solids
         1. Melting and freezing
         2. Sublimation and deposition
   3. Liquids
      1. Molecular arrangement in liquids
      2. Properties of liquids
         1. Surface tension
            1. Causes and effects of surface tension
            2. Measurement: capillary rise method
         2. Viscosity
            1. Factors affecting viscosity
            2. Measurement and units
         3. Density and buoyancy
            1. Calculation and factors affecting density
            2. Buoyancy in different liquids
         4. Vapor pressure
            1. Definition and factors affecting vapor pressure
            2. Relation to boiling point
      3. Phase transitions involving liquids
         1. Evaporation and condensation
         2. Boiling and vaporization
         3. Freezing and melting
   4. Gases
      1. Nature of gases and gas behavior
      2. Gas laws
         1. Boyle's law: pressure-volume relationship
         2. Charles's law: volume-temperature relationship
         3. Avogadro's law: volume-mole relationship
         4. Ideal gas law: PV=nRT
            1. Applications of the ideal gas law
            2. Calculations involving the ideal gas constant
      3. Kinetic molecular theory
         1. Basic postulates and assumptions
         2. Relation to temperature and pressure
         3. Explanation of gas laws using kinetic theory
      4. Real gases
         1. Deviations from ideality
            1. Factors causing deviations: high pressure, low temperature
            2. van der Waals equation
            3. Critical temperature and pressure
         2. Liquefaction of gases
            1. Methods and industrial applications
   5. Plasma
      1. Definition and characteristics of plasma
      2. Formation of plasma
         1. Ionization processes: thermal, electrical, nuclear
         2. Natural plasma: stars, lightning, auroras
         3. Artificial plasma: neon signs, plasma TVs, fusion experiments
      3. Properties of plasma
         1. Conductivity and magnetic fields
         2. Applications of plasma
            1. Industrial processing: plasma cutting and coating
            2. Plasma technology in medicine
            3. Fusion energy research
   6. Phase Transitions
      1. Overview of phase diagrams
         1. Triple point
         2. Critical point
         3. Reading a phase diagram
      2. Types of phase transitions
         1. First-order transitions: latent heat, volume change
         2. Second-order transitions: no latent heat, continuous
      3. Thermodynamic principles of phase transitions
         1. Gibbs free energy and spontaneity
         2. Clausius-Clapeyron equation
         3. Le Chatelier’s principle and phase behavior
      4. Anomalies in phase transitions
         1. Water’s unusual behavior
         2. Helium’s superfluidity
   7. Applications and Importance of States of Matter
      1. Role in the environment
         1. Water cycle: evaporation, condensation, precipitation
         2. Atmospheric phenomena: air density and pressure
      2. Technological and industrial applications
         1. Refrigeration and cryogenics
         2. Material science: developments in solid state and liquid crystals
      3. Everyday examples and implications
         1. Cooking and food preservation
         2. Air conditioning and heating systems