General Chemistry

General Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the fundamental concepts and principles governing the behavior of matter and the changes it undergoes. It encompasses topics such as the structure of atoms, the periodic table, chemical bonding, stoichiometry, states of matter, thermodynamics, and chemical reactions. This foundational discipline serves as the basis for more advanced studies in chemistry and related fields, providing essential knowledge for understanding the interaction of substances and the underlying chemical phenomena in various processes.

1. Atomic Structure
   1. Atoms and Elements
      1. Definition of an atom
         1. Fundamental unit of matter
         2. Composed of subatomic particles
         3. Maintains properties of an element
      2. Subatomic particles
         1. Protons
            1. Positive charge
            2. Located in the nucleus
            3. Determines elemental identity
            4. Mass significance in atomic weight
         2. Neutrons
            1. Neutral charge
            2. Located in the nucleus
            3. Contributes to atomic mass
            4. Role in isotopic variation
         3. Electrons
            1. Negative charge
            2. Found in electron cloud/orbitals
            3. Determines chemical reactivity and bonding
            4. Negligible mass compared to protons/neutrons
      3. Isotopes
         1. Definition and examples
         2. Importance of isotopic varieties in nature
         3. Role in radiometric dating and nuclear chemistry
         4. Stable vs. radioactive isotopes
   2. Atomic Models
      1. Dalton's atomic theory
         1. Elements consist of indivisible atoms
         2. Atoms of same element are identical
         3. Compounds are combinations of different elements
         4. Chemical reactions as rearrangements of atoms
      2. Thomson's plum pudding model
         1. Electrons embedded within a positive matrix
         2. Early model of atomic structure
         3. Discovery of the electron through cathode ray experiments
      3. Rutherford's nuclear model
         1. Gold foil experiment
         2. Existence of a dense, positively charged nucleus
         3. Surrounding space occupied by electrons
      4. Bohr's model
         1. Electrons in fixed orbits/energy levels
         2. Quantized energy states for electrons
         3. Explanation of spectral lines
      5. Quantum mechanical model
         1. Probability-based orbital shapes and electron distribution
         2. Uncertainty principle
         3. Wave-particle duality of electrons
         4. Schrödinger equation and electron behavior
   3. Electron Configuration
      1. Principles governing electron arrangement
         1. Aufbau principle
            1. Electrons fill lowest energy orbitals first
            2. Sequence of orbital filling
         2. Pauli exclusion principle
            1. No two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers
            2. Limits electron capacity per orbital
         3. Hund's rule
            1. Electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly first
            2. Maximize total electron spin
      2. Electron configuration notation
         1. Standard notation (e.g., 1s² 2s² 2p⁶)
         2. Orbital diagrams representing electron spins
         3. Exceptions and irregularities in transition metals
   4. Atomic Orbitals
      1. Types of orbitals
         1. s orbitals
            1. Spherical shape
            2. One per energy level
         2. p orbitals
            1. Dumbbell shape
            2. Three orientations per energy level starting from n=2
         3. d orbitals
            1. More complex shapes
            2. Five per energy level starting from n=3
         4. f orbitals
            1. Complex shapes
            2. Seven per energy level starting from n=4
      2. Shapes and orientations of orbitals
         1. Visualizing orbital shapes
         2. Influence of orbital symmetry on chemical bonding
         3. Nodal planes and regions of electron probability
      3. Quantum numbers and their significance
         1. Principle quantum number (n)
         2. Angular momentum quantum number (l)
         3. Magnetic quantum number (m_l)
         4. Spin quantum number (m_s)