General Chemistry

1. Chemical Bonding
   1. Ionic Bonds
      1. Definition and Characteristics
         1. Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
         2. Typically formed between metals and nonmetals
         3. Transfer of electrons from metal to nonmetal
      2. Formation of Ionic Compounds
         1. Cation and anion formation
            1. Loss of electrons by metals to form cations
            2. Gain of electrons by nonmetals to form anions
         2. Lattice structure
            1. Arrangement of ions in a repeating pattern
            2. Influence on melting and boiling points
      3. Properties of Ionic Compounds
         1. High melting and boiling points
         2. Electrical conductivity in molten state or when dissolved in water
         3. Solubility in polar solvents
   2. Covalent Bonds
      1. Definition and Characteristics
         1. Sharing of electron pairs between atoms
         2. Typically formed between nonmetal atoms
      2. Types of Covalent Bonds
         1. Single Bonds
            1. Sharing of one pair of electrons
            2. Bond length and strength
         2. Double Bonds
            1. Sharing of two pairs of electrons
            2. Comparatively shorter and stronger than single bonds
         3. Triple Bonds
            1. Sharing of three pairs of electrons
            2. Shortest and strongest among covalent bonds
      3. Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
         1. Polar Covalent Bonds
            1. Unequal sharing of electrons
            2. Electronegativity differences between bonded atoms
            3. Partial charges leading to dipoles
         2. Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
            1. Equal sharing of electrons
            2. Similar electronegativity between bonded atoms
      4. Resonance Structures
         1. Concept of resonance
            1. Alternate Lewis structures for molecules
            2. Delocalization of electrons
         2. Example cases
            1. Benzene
            2. Ozone
   3. Metallic Bonds
      1. Definition and Characteristics
         1. Bonding in metals involving a sea of delocalized electrons
         2. Metal cations surrounded by free-moving electrons
      2. Properties of Metallic Bonds
         1. High electrical and thermal conductivity
         2. Malleability and ductility
         3. Lustrous appearance
   4. Intermolecular Forces
      1. Overview of Intermolecular Forces
         1. Forces of attraction between molecules
         2. Weaker than intramolecular (covalent, ionic, metallic) bonds
      2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
         1. Occur between polar molecules
         2. Influence on boiling and melting points
      3. Hydrogen Bonding
         1. Strong type of dipole-dipole interaction
         2. Occurs when hydrogen is bonded to electronegative atoms like N, O, or F
         3. Critical in determining properties of water and biological macromolecules
      4. London Dispersion Forces
         1. Present in all molecules, especially nonpolar
         2. Arises due to temporary dipoles
         3. Greater influence in larger and heavier atoms/molecules
   5. Molecular Geometry
      1. VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)
         1. Predicts geometry based on electron pair repulsion
         2. Effect of lone pairs and bonds on molecular shape
      2. Common Molecular Geometries
         1. Linear
         2. Bent
         3. Trigonal planar
         4. Tetrahedral
         5. Trigonal bipyramidal
         6. Octahedral
      3. Hybridization
         1. Concept of orbital mixing
            1. sp, sp², sp³ hybrid orbitals
         2. Relationship between hybridization and molecular geometry
         3. Examples and applications in organic and inorganic chemistry