Biochemistry

  1. Cellular Processes
    1. Cell Signaling
      1. Types of Cell Signaling
        1. Autocrine Signaling
          1. Paracrine Signaling
            1. Endocrine Signaling
              1. Juxtacrine Signaling
              2. Signal Transduction Pathways
                1. Overview of Pathways
                  1. G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
                    1. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)
                      1. Ion Channel Receptors
                        1. Intracellular Receptors
                        2. Receptors and Ligands
                          1. Characteristics of Receptors
                            1. Types of Ligands
                              1. Hormonal Ligands
                                1. Neurotransmitters
                                  1. Growth Factors
                                    1. Cytokines
                                  2. Second Messengers
                                    1. Common Second Messengers
                                      1. cAMP
                                        1. cGMP
                                          1. Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)
                                            1. Diacylglycerol (DAG)
                                              1. Calcium Ions (Ca²⁺)
                                              2. Functions and Mechanisms
                                              3. Kinase Cascades
                                                1. MAPK/ERK Pathway
                                                  1. PI3K/AKT Pathway
                                                    1. JAK/STAT Pathway
                                                      1. Regulation and Modulation of Kinase Cascades
                                                    2. Membrane Dynamics
                                                      1. Fluid Mosaic Model
                                                        1. Composition of Biological Membranes
                                                          1. Lipid Bilayer
                                                            1. Membrane Proteins
                                                              1. Carbohydrate Components
                                                              2. Functionality and Fluidity
                                                              3. Membrane Transport
                                                                1. Passive Transport
                                                                  1. Simple Diffusion
                                                                    1. Osmosis
                                                                      1. Aquaporins in Osmosis
                                                                      2. Facilitated Diffusion
                                                                        1. Role of Carrier Proteins
                                                                          1. Role of Channel Proteins
                                                                        2. Active Transport
                                                                          1. Primary Active Transport
                                                                            1. Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase)
                                                                              1. Calcium Pump
                                                                              2. Secondary Active Transport
                                                                                1. Symporters and Antiporters
                                                                                  1. Examples in Glucose Absorption
                                                                              3. Vesicular Transport
                                                                                1. Endocytosis
                                                                                  1. Phagocytosis
                                                                                    1. Mechanism and Functions
                                                                                    2. Pinocytosis
                                                                                      1. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
                                                                                      2. Exocytosis
                                                                                        1. Types of Exocytic Pathways
                                                                                          1. Importance in Neurotransmitter Release
                                                                                      3. Cell Cycle and Division
                                                                                        1. Phases of the Cell Cycle
                                                                                          1. G1 Phase
                                                                                            1. S Phase
                                                                                              1. G2 Phase
                                                                                                1. M Phase (Mitosis)
                                                                                                2. Mitosis
                                                                                                  1. Stages of Mitosis
                                                                                                    1. Prophase
                                                                                                      1. Metaphase
                                                                                                        1. Anaphase
                                                                                                          1. Telophase
                                                                                                            1. Cytokinesis
                                                                                                            2. Checkpoints in Mitosis
                                                                                                            3. Meiosis
                                                                                                              1. Purpose of Meiosis
                                                                                                                1. Stages of Meiosis I and II
                                                                                                                  1. Prophase I (including Synapsis and Crossing Over)
                                                                                                                    1. Metaphase I
                                                                                                                      1. Anaphase I
                                                                                                                        1. Telophase I
                                                                                                                          1. Prophase II
                                                                                                                            1. Metaphase II
                                                                                                                              1. Anaphase II
                                                                                                                                1. Telophase II
                                                                                                                                2. Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
                                                                                                                                3. Regulation of the Cell Cycle
                                                                                                                                  1. Role of Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (CDKs)
                                                                                                                                    1. Tumor Suppressors (e.g., p53, Rb)
                                                                                                                                      1. Effects of Cell Cycle Dysregulation
                                                                                                                                      2. Apoptosis
                                                                                                                                        1. Pathways of Apoptosis
                                                                                                                                          1. Intrinsic Pathway
                                                                                                                                            1. Extrinsic Pathway
                                                                                                                                            2. Caspases and Their Role
                                                                                                                                              1. Importance in Development and Disease Prevention
                                                                                                                                                1. Differences between Apoptosis and Necrosis
                                                                                                                                            3. Metabolism
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                                                                                                                                            5. Techniques in Biochemistry