General Chemistry

1. Solutions
   1. Solubility and Solutions
      1. Solvent-solute interactions
         1. Polar and nonpolar solvents
         2. Solvation process
            1. Hydration in aqueous solutions
         3. Influence of molecular structure on solubility
            1. Role of hydrogen bonding
            2. Dipole-dipole interactions
            3. London dispersion forces
      2. Saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions
         1. Definition and characteristics
         2. Preparation of supersaturated solutions
         3. Phase diagrams and solubility curves
         4. Effects of temperature and pressure on solubility
            1. Effect of temperature on gas solubility
            2. Henry’s law for gases in liquids
   2. Concentration Units
      1. Molarity (M)
         1. Calculation methods
         2. Effects of temperature and volume on molarity
         3. Applications in chemical reactions
      2. Molality (m)
         1. Differences between molarity and molality
         2. Importance in colligative property calculations
      3. Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb)
         1. Usage in environmental chemistry
         2. Conversion between ppm, ppb, and other units
      4. Normality (N) and its applications
         1. Concepts of equivalents in reactions
         2. Relation to molarity
      5. Dilution of solutions
         1. Dilution equations and calculations
         2. Practical laboratory applications
   3. Colligative Properties
      1. Boiling point elevation
         1. Raoult's law and its application
         2. Real-world examples
      2. Freezing point depression
         1. Explanation of depression in terms of phase change
         2. Antifreeze and real-world applications
      3. Osmotic pressure
         1. Calculation using van 't Hoff factor
         2. Biological significance in cell membranes
      4. Vapor pressure lowering
         1. Explanation in terms of Raoult's Law
         2. Impact on boiling and freezing points
   4. Factors Affecting Solubility
      1. Nature of solute and solvent
      2. Temperature effects
         1. Endothermic and exothermic dissolution
      3. Pressure effects (primarily on gases)
         1. Le Chatelier's principle
         2. Applications in carbonated beverages
   5. Solution Preparation
      1. Techniques for making solutions
         1. Use of volumetric flasks and pipettes
         2. Precise measurement and mixing methods
      2. Concentration adjustments
         1. Use of dilution formulas
         2. Role of serial dilutions in labs
   6. Types of Solutions
      1. Aqueous vs. non-aqueous solutions
      2. Electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions
         1. Conductivity and dissociation in solution
      3. Gas-gas, liquid-liquid, and solid-solid solutions
         1. Examples and properties of each
   7. Applications of Solutions
      1. Industrial applications
         1. Chemical manufacturing
         2. Cleaning agents and solvents
      2. Biological and medical applications
         1. Drug formulation and delivery
         2. IV solutions and their importance
      3. Environmental applications
         1. Use in pollutant removal and remediation
         2. Significance in aquatic systems and ecosystems