Nanochemistry

1. Characterization Techniques
   1. Microscopy
      1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Electron beam interaction with sample surfaces
            2. Detection of secondary electrons
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Conductive coating for non-conductive samples
            2. Sample fixation techniques
         3. Applications
            1. Surface morphology analysis
            2. Particle size determination
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. High-resolution imaging
            2. Challenges with charging effect
      2. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Electron beam transmission through ultra-thin samples
            2. Use of magnetic lenses for electron focusing
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Ultramicrotomy and ion beam thinning
            2. Staining and grid mounting
         3. Applications
            1. Crystallographic information
            2. Internal structure analysis
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Atomic scale resolution
            2. Complex sample preparation
      3. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Interaction between a sharp tip and sample surface
            2. Use of cantilever deflection measurements
         2. Modes of Operation
            1. Contact mode
            2. Tapping mode
            3. Non-contact mode
         3. Applications
            1. Topographical mapping at nanoscale
            2. Measurement of mechanical properties
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Versatility in different environments
            2. Limited scan size
   2. Spectroscopy
      1. UV-Visible Spectroscopy
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Absorption of ultraviolet or visible light by electrons
            2. Use of wavelength spectra for analysis
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Solution preparation and cuvette cleaning
            2. Solvent considerations
         3. Applications
            1. Band gap energy determination
            2. Concentration measurements
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Simplicity and speed of measurements
            2. Limited qualitative information
      2. Raman Spectroscopy
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Inelastic scattering of monochromatic light
            2. Detection of vibrational modes
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Minimal sample preparation needed
            2. Considerations for fluorescence interference
         3. Applications
            1. Molecular fingerprinting
            2. Study of chemical compositions
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Non-destructive analysis
            2. Sensitivity to sample fluorescence
      3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Diffraction of X-rays by crystal lattices
            2. Lattice parameter and structural identification
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Powder form requirement
            2. Sample alignment techniques
         3. Applications
            1. Phase identification of crystalline materials
            2. Crystallinity and lattice strain analysis
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. High precision of unit cell dimensions
            2. Requires crystalline samples
   3. Thermal Analysis
      1. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Measurement of heat flow associated with phase transitions
            2. Use of reference sample for comparison
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Selection of appropriate sample pans
            2. Calibration procedures
         3. Applications
            1. Determination of melting points and glass transitions
            2. Study of reaction kinetics
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Specific to exothermic/endothermic processes
            2. Sample specific heat capacity dependence
      2. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Measurement of weight change under controlled temperature
            2. Analysis of thermal stability
         2. Sample Preparation
            1. Appropriate sample size selection
            2. Importance of clean, dry samples
         3. Applications
            1. Composition analysis and decomposition temperatures
            2. Thermal stability and moisture content evaluation
         4. Advantages and Limitations
            1. Suitable for a wide range of materials
            2. Limited to mass change events
   4. Advanced Characterization Techniques
      1. Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Analysis of fluctuations in light scattering due to particles
            2. Use of autocorrelation functions
         2. Applications
            1. Nanoparticle size distribution measurement
            2. Stability of colloidal solutions
      2. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Measurement of kinetic energy of photoelectrons
            2. Determination of elemental composition
         2. Applications
            1. Surface chemical state analysis
            2. Elemental depth profiling
      3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Detection of magnetic fields produced by nuclei
            2. Use of chemical shift and spin-spin coupling
         2. Applications
            1. Structural elucidation of organic compounds
            2. Measurement of molecular dynamics and interactions
      4. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
         1. Principle and Operation
            1. Resonant oscillation of electrons stimulated by light
            2. Measurement of changes in refractive index
         2. Applications
            1. Study of biomolecular interactions
            2. Thin film property analysis