Microbiology

1. Pathogenic Microbiology
   1. Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
      1. Toxin Production
         1. Endotoxins
            1. Associated with Gram-negative bacteria
            2. LPS structure and effects
         2. Exotoxins
            1. Secreted by bacteria
            2. Types: neurotoxins, enterotoxins, cytotoxins
            3. Mechanisms of action
         3. Mechanisms of toxin delivery
            1. Injection systems in Gram-negative bacteria (Type III and IV secretion systems)
      2. Immune Evasion
         1. Antigenic variation
            1. Mechanisms: phase variation, antigenic drift
         2. Capsule formation
            1. Role in resisting phagocytosis
            2. Examples: Streptococcus pneumoniae
         3. Intracellular survival
            1. Inhibition of phagosome-lysosome fusion
            2. Survival in harsh conditions
         4. Enzyme production
            1. Proteases that degrade immune proteins
            2. Strategies to neutralize antibodies
   2. Host-Microbe Interactions
      1. Infections and Immune Response
         1. Acute vs. chronic infections
         2. Inflammatory responses
            1. Role of cytokines and chemokines
         3. Adaptive immune responses
            1. Activation of T-cells and B-cells
      2. Microbiome and Human Health
         1. Microbiota composition in healthy vs. diseased states
         2. Role of microbiota in skin and mucosal defenses
         3. Influence of microbiota on systemic immunity
            1. Gut-brain axis
            2. Gut-lung axis
         4. Dysbiosis
            1. Impacts on disease progression
            2. Examples: Clostridioides difficile infections
   3. Antimicrobial Resistance
      1. Mechanisms of Resistance
         1. Efflux pumps
            1. Broad-spectrum resistance
         2. Antibiotic inactivation
            1. Enzymatic degradation (e.g., beta-lactamases)
         3. Target modification
            1. Alteration of binding sites
            2. Examples: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
         4. Reduced permeability
            1. Changes in cell wall/membrane structures
      2. Strategies to Combat Resistance
         1. Development of new antibiotics
            1. Next-generation antimicrobials
         2. Drug combination therapies
            1. Synergistic effects
         3. Phage therapy
            1. Use of bacteriophages to target specific pathogens
         4. Antimicrobial stewardship programs
            1. Promotion of responsible antibiotic use
         5. Research and development of novel therapies
            1. Host-directed therapies
            2. CRISPR-based antimicrobial strategies