Human Anatomy and Physiology

1. Human Physiology
   1. Homeostasis
      1. Definition and Importance
      2. Feedback Mechanisms
         1. Negative Feedback Loops
            1. Examples in Body Systems
            2. Impact on Homeostasis
         2. Positive Feedback Loops
            1. Examples and Functions
            2. Special Cases and Consequences
      3. Role of Homeostatic Systems
         1. Integration of Organ Systems
         2. Adaptation to Changes
   2. Neurophysiology
      1. Structure and Function of Neurons
         1. Neuron Types
         2. Role of Neurotransmitters
      2. Synapses
         1. Chemical Synapses
            1. Synaptic Transmission
            2. Synaptic Plasticity
         2. Electrical Synapses
            1. Features and Functions
      3. Membrane Potentials
         1. Resting Membrane Potential
         2. Action Potential
            1. Threshold and All-Or-None Law
         3. Ion Channels and Their Functions
      4. Signal Transmission
         1. Propagation of Action Potentials
         2. Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Neurons
         3. Neural Networks and Circuits
         4. Role in Nervous System Functionality
   3. Muscle Physiology
      1. Muscle Types and Their Functions
         1. Skeletal Muscle
            1. Structure and Fiber Types
            2. Voluntary Movement Control
         2. Smooth Muscle
            1. Role in Organ Systems
            2. Regulation by Autonomic Nervous System
         3. Cardiac Muscle
            1. Unique Properties
            2. Rhythm and Contraction Coordination
      2. Muscle Contraction
         1. Sliding Filament Theory
         2. Role of Calcium and ATP
         3. Motor Units and Neuromuscular Junctions
      3. Muscle Metabolism
         1. Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
         2. Energy Sources for Muscle Activity
         3. Fatigue and Recovery Processes
   4. Cardiovascular Physiology
      1. Cardiac Cycle
         1. Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
         2. Role in Circulatory System
      2. Blood Pressure Regulation
         1. Short-term and Long-term Control
         2. Baroreceptors and Chemoreceptors
         3. Hypertension and Hypotension
      3. Electrocardiogram (ECG)
         1. Interpretation of ECG Waves
         2. Diagnostic Uses
         3. Heart Rhythm Abnormalities
   5. Respiratory Physiology
      1. Pulmonary Ventilation
         1. Mechanics of Breathing
         2. Lung Volumes and Capacities
      2. Gas Exchange
         1. Diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
         2. Partial Pressure Gradients
         3. Oxygen Transport by Hemoglobin
      3. Regulation of Breathing
         1. Neural Control Centers
         2. Role of Chemoreceptors
         3. Response to Physical Exercise and Altitude
   6. Renal Physiology
      1. Filtration
         1. Glomerular Filtration Process
         2. Filtration Rate and Influencing Factors
      2. Reabsorption
         1. Mechanisms and Sites
         2. Reabsorption of Water, Ions, and Nutrients
      3. Secretion
         1. Purpose and Processes
         2. Tubular Secretion
      4. Regulation of Fluid Balance
         1. Role of Hormones (e.g., ADH, Aldosterone)
         2. Impact on Blood Pressure and Volume
   7. Digestive Physiology
      1. Enzyme Function
         1. Types of Digestive Enzymes
         2. Role in Breaking Down Nutrients
      2. Nutrient Absorption
         1. Mechanisms in Small Intestine
         2. Absorption of Macro and Micronutrients
      3. Digestive Motility
         1. Peristalsis and Segmentation
         2. Regulation of Movement
   8. Endocrine Physiology
      1. Hormonal Control
         1. Mechanisms of Action
         2. Feedback Loops in Hormone Regulation
      2. Regulation of Metabolism
         1. Hormones Involved in Metabolism
         2. Interaction with Other Body Systems
      3. Growth and Development
         1. Role of Hormones in Growth
         2. Impact on Tissue Development
   9. Reproductive Physiology
      1. Gametogenesis
         1. Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
         2. Regulation and Hormonal Control
      2. Menstrual Cycle
         1. Phases and Hormonal Changes
         2. Impact on Female Reproductive Health
      3. Hormonal Regulation
         1. Role in Reproductive Processes
         2. Interaction with Other Endocrine Functions
   10. Immune Physiology
       1. Innate Immunity
          1. Barriers and Internal Defenses
          2. Inflammatory Response
       2. Adaptive Immunity
          1. Activation of Lymphocytes
          2. Antigen Recognition and Memory
       3. Immune Responses
          1. Coordinated Cell and Humoral Responses
          2. Vaccination and Immunological Memory