Evolutionary Biology

  1. Human Evolution
    1. Hominid Evolution
      1. Early Hominids
        1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis
          1. Orrorin tugenensis
            1. Ardipithecus ramidus
            2. Australopithecines
              1. Australopithecus afarensis
                1. Australopithecus africanus
                  1. Robust Australopithecines
                    1. Paranthropus aethiopicus
                      1. Paranthropus boisei
                        1. Paranthropus robustus
                      2. Genus Homo
                        1. Homo habilis
                          1. Homo erectus
                            1. Homo heidelbergensis
                              1. Homo neanderthalensis
                                1. Homo sapiens
                              2. Fossil Evidence
                                1. Importance of Fossils in Understanding Evolution
                                  1. Major Fossil Sites
                                    1. Olduvai Gorge
                                      1. Laetoli Footprints
                                        1. Dmanisi in Georgia
                                          1. Zhoukoudian Cave
                                          2. Interpretation of Fossil Evidence
                                            1. Skeletal Morphology
                                              1. Dating Techniques
                                                1. Radiometric Dating
                                                  1. Stratigraphy
                                              2. Genetic Studies
                                                1. Human Genome Project
                                                  1. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
                                                    1. Y-Chromosome Studies
                                                      1. Ancient DNA Analysis
                                                        1. Neanderthal Genome
                                                          1. Denisovan DNA
                                                          2. Genetic Diversity in Modern Humans
                                                            1. Population Genetics
                                                              1. Bottleneck and Founder Effects
                                                            2. Cultural Evolution
                                                              1. Development of Tools
                                                                1. Oldowan Stone Tools
                                                                  1. Acheulean Handaxes
                                                                  2. Control and Use of Fire
                                                                    1. Development of Language
                                                                      1. Theories of Language Evolution
                                                                        1. Evidence from Archaeology and Genetics
                                                                        2. Art and Symbolism
                                                                          1. Cave Paintings
                                                                            1. Figurines and Artifacts
                                                                            2. Agriculture and Domestication
                                                                              1. Transition from Hunter-Gatherers to Agriculture
                                                                                1. Impact on Society and Environment
                                                                              2. Out-of-Africa Hypothesis
                                                                                1. Evidence and Implications
                                                                                  1. Multiregional Hypothesis
                                                                                    1. Recent African Origin Model
                                                                                    2. Evolutionary Adaptations in Humans
                                                                                      1. Bipedalism
                                                                                        1. Anatomical Changes
                                                                                          1. Energetic Efficiency
                                                                                          2. Encephalization
                                                                                            1. Increase in Brain Size
                                                                                              1. Cognitive Abilities
                                                                                              2. Diet and Digestive Adaptations
                                                                                                1. Changes in Jaw and Teeth
                                                                                                  1. Evolution of Lactase Persistence
                                                                                                  2. Skin Color and UV Radiation
                                                                                                    1. Vitamin D Synthesis
                                                                                                      1. Melanin and Natural Selection
                                                                                                    2. Impacts of Human Evolution Today
                                                                                                      1. Evolutionary Medicine
                                                                                                        1. Understanding Genetic Disorders
                                                                                                          1. Lactose Intolerance and Adaptation
                                                                                                          2. Implications for Modern Human Diversity
                                                                                                            1. Interpretations of Human Behavior and Psychology
                                                                                                            2. Ongoing Research and Future Directions
                                                                                                              1. New Discoveries in Fossil Evidence
                                                                                                                1. Advances in Genomic Technologies
                                                                                                                  1. Interdisciplinary Approaches in Anthropogeny
                                                                                                                    1. Global Collaborations and Research Networks
                                                                                                                  7. Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo-Devo)
                                                                                                                  First Page
                                                                                                                  9. Evolutionary Ecology