Criminal Law

1. Evolution and Reform in Criminal Law
   1. Historical Development
      1. Ancient criminal codes
         1. Code of Hammurabi
         2. Roman law and its influence
         3. Early English common law
      2. Development through the Middle Ages
         1. Feudal justice systems
         2. Canon law
      3. Enlightenment period changes
         1. Philosophical shifts
         2. Emergence of modern legal principles
   2. Trends in Criminalization and Decriminalization
      1. Societal shifts influencing criminalization
         1. Moral standards and changing norms
         2. Responses to new types of behavior
      2. Impact of drug laws
         1. Legalization and decriminalization trends
         2. Medical marijuana and controlled substances laws
      3. Decriminalization of certain offenses
         1. Civil disobedience
         2. Minor infractions, e.g., jaywalking, littering
   3. Impact of Social and Technological Changes
      1. Advances in technology
         1. Cybercrime and digital fraud
         2. Surveillance and data privacy laws
      2. Social changes
         1. Influence of cultural diversity
         2. Shift in focus to rehabilitation over punishment
   4. Criminal Justice Reform Movements
      1. Reducing mass incarceration
         1. Sentencing reform initiatives
         2. Alternative sentencing strategies
      2. Police reform
         1. Use-of-force policies
         2. Community policing initiatives
      3. Restorative justice practices
         1. Victim-offender mediation
         2. Community-based solutions
      4. Bail reform
         1. Elimination of cash bail
         2. Pre-trial release programs
   5. Role of International Law and Human Rights
      1. Application of international human rights standards
         1. United Nations conventions
         2. European Court of Human Rights decisions
      2. Cross-border cooperation
         1. Extradition and international collaboration
         2. Combating transnational organized crime
      3. Influence of international organizations
         1. International Criminal Court
         2. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)