Computer Architecture

1. Input/Output (I/O) Systems
   1. Definition and Types
      1. Definition of I/O Systems
         1. Explanation of how I/O systems facilitate communication between computer hardware and the external environment
         2. Significance in overall system performance
      2. Types of I/O Devices
         1. Input Devices
            1. Keyboards
            2. Mice
            3. Scanners
            4. Microphones
            5. Cameras
         2. Output Devices
            1. Monitors
            2. Printers
            3. Speakers
            4. Projectors
         3. Storage Devices
            1. Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
            2. Solid State Drives (SSD)
            3. Optical Drives (CD/DVD/Blu-Ray)
            4. USB Drives
            5. Network Storage Solutions
   2. I/O Control Methods
      1. Programmed I/O
         1. Definition and Functional Explanation
         2. Control through CPU Intervention
         3. Pros and Cons
            1. Simplicity
            2. CPU Time Consumption
      2. Interrupt-Driven I/O
         1. Definition and Mechanism
         2. How interrupts facilitate efficiency
         3. Hardware vs. Software Interrupts
         4. Advantages and Use Cases
      3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
         1. Overview of DMA Mechanisms
         2. Types of DMA
            1. Burst Mode
            2. Cycle Stealing Mode
            3. Transparent Mode
         3. Pros and Cons
            1. Offloading CPU
            2. Complexity in Implementation
   3. I/O Performance Optimization
      1. Buffering
         1. Single and Double Buffering Concepts
         2. Use Cases
      2. Caching
         1. I/O Data Caching Mechanisms
         2. Impacts on Performance
      3. Spooling
         1. Definition and Applications
         2. Typical Use in Print Queues
      4. Error Handling in I/O Operations
         1. Parity Bit Checking
         2. Error Detection and Correction Codes (EDC/ECC)
   4. I/O Interface Standards
      1. Serial Interfaces
         1. RS-232
         2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
         3. FireWire (IEEE 1394)
      2. Parallel Interfaces
         1. Centronics Interface
         2. Parallel Port Usage
      3. Network Interfaces
         1. Ethernet Standards
         2. Wireless Protocols (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth)
      4. Emerging I/O Technologies
         1. Thunderbolt
         2. USB-C
         3. Optical I/O Devices
   5. I/O Systems in Network Environments
      1. Network I/O Functions
         1. Data Packet Transmission and Reception
         2. Protocol Handling
      2. Remote I/O Access
         1. Network File Systems (NFS)
         2. Cloud-Based I/O and Storage Solutions
      3. Security in I/O Operations
         1. Encryption in Data Transmission
         2. Authentication for Network I/O Devices
   6. Virtual I/O Systems
      1. Concept and Rationale
      2. Virtual Network Interfaces
      3. Virtual Disk Drives
      4. Use Cases in Virtual Machines and Cloud Environments
   7. Modern Trends in I/O Systems
      1. Internet of Things (IoT) and I/O Device Integration
      2. I/O Consolidation in Datacenters
      3. Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR) I/O Requirements