Computer Architecture

1. Memory Systems
   1. Memory Hierarchy
      1. Registers
         1. Characteristics of Registers
         2. Types of Registers (Instruction Register, Memory Address Register, etc.)
         3. Role in CPU Operations
      2. Cache Memory
         1. Definition and Purpose
         2. Cache Organization
            1. Associative Mapping
            2. Direct Mapping
            3. Set-Associative Mapping
         3. Cache Coherence and Consistency
         4. Levels of Cache (L1, L2, L3)
            1. L1 Cache
               1. Speed and Size Characteristics
               2. Split vs. Unified Cache
            2. L2 Cache
               1. Advantages of L2 Cache
               2. Integration in Modern Processors
            3. L3 Cache
               1. Impact on Performance
               2. Storage Capacity
         5. Write Policies
            1. Write-Through
            2. Write-Back
         6. Cache Misses and Optimization
            1. Types of Cache Misses (Compulsory, Capacity, Conflict)
            2. Techniques to Reduce Cache Misses
      3. Main Memory (RAM)
         1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) vs. Static RAM (SRAM)
         2. Memory Latency and Throughput
         3. Modern DRAM Architectures (DDR, DDR2, DDR3, etc.)
         4. Memory Modules and Form Factors
      4. Secondary Storage
         1. Overview and Importance
         2. Hard Drives
            1. Magnetic Storage Characteristics
            2. Disk Access Time
            3. RAID Configurations and Benefits
         3. Solid State Drives (SSDs)
            1. Flash Memory Technology
            2. Types of SSDs (NVMe, SATA, M.2)
            3. Performance Metrics
   2. Memory Management
      1. Virtual Memory
         1. Concept and Implementation
         2. Advantages and Disadvantages
         3. Page Tables and Translation Lookaside Buffers (TLBs)
         4. Memory Protection with Virtual Memory
      2. Memory Allocation
         1. Static vs. Dynamic Allocation
         2. Stack and Heap Memory
         3. Allocators and Deallocation Techniques
         4. Memory Leaks and Fragmentation
      3. Paging and Segmentation
         1. Segmentation: Concepts and Benefits
         2. Paging: Fixed-size Physical Memory Pages
         3. Page Replacement Algorithms (FIFO, LRU, Optimal)
         4. Combined Paging and Segmentation Techniques
   3. Advanced Memory Topics
      1. Non-Volatile Memory (NVM) Technologies
         1. Flash Memory
         2. Phase-Change Memory (PCM)
         3. Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM)
      2. 3D Memory Stacking
      3. Memory Bandwidth and Latency Concerns
      4. Impact of Memory on System Performance
      5. Future Directions in Memory Technology