Biotechnology

1. Techniques in Biotechnology
   1. Genetic Engineering
      1. Recombinant DNA technology
         1. Cloning vectors and plasmid design
         2. Enzymes used in DNA cutting and ligation
         3. Application in producing genetically modified organisms
      2. CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing
         1. Mechanisms of CRISPR-Cas9 function
         2. Designing guide RNA for target specificity
         3. Usage in therapeutic gene correction
      3. Gene cloning and mapping
         1. Techniques for isolating and amplifying genes
         2. Mapping genetic markers in various organisms
         3. Role in functional genomics and genetic annotation
   2. Molecular Biology
      1. DNA sequencing and synthesis
         1. Next-generation sequencing technologies
         2. Applications in genome-wide association studies
         3. Synthetic DNA and synthetic biology applications
      2. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
         1. Optimization of reaction components and conditions
         2. Real-time PCR applications in diagnostics
         3. Innovations such as droplet PCR and digital PCR
      3. Protein engineering and expression
         1. Directed evolution for protein enhancement
         2. Expression systems in prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts
         3. Applications in developing industrial enzymes and therapeutics
   3. Bioprocessing
      1. Fermentation technology
         1. Types of fermentation processes (batch, fed-batch, continuous)
         2. Fermentation scale-up from lab to industrial scale
         3. Industrial fermentation products: biochemicals, biofuels
      2. Bioreactor design and operations
         1. Types of bioreactors (stirred-tank, airlift, packed-bed, etc.)
         2. Monitoring and controlling bioprocess parameters (temperature, pH, oxygen)
         3. Advances in disposable and single-use bioreactors
      3. Downstream processing and purification
         1. Techniques for cell disruption and product recovery
         2. Filtration, centrifugation, and chromatography methods
         3. Yield optimization and process economics in biomanufacturing