Public Finance

1. Government Expenditure
   1. Types of Expenditure
      1. Capital Expenditure
         1. Definition and Characteristics
         2. Impact on Economic Growth
         3. Investment in Infrastructure
         4. Funding for Capital Projects
         5. Effects on Long-Term Economic Capacity
      2. Revenue Expenditure
         1. Definition and Characteristics
         2. Recurrent Expenses
            1. Salaries and Wages
            2. Operational Costs
         3. Differences from Capital Expenditure
         4. Short-term Economic Impact
   2. Classification of Expenditure
      1. Developmental vs Non-Developmental
         1. Definition and Criteria
         2. Focus on Growth-oriented Projects
         3. Impact on Human Development Indicators
         4. Examples of Developmental Expenditure
         5. Non-Developmental Expenditure
            1. Defense Spending
            2. Administration Costs
      2. Plan vs Non-Plan
         1. Historical Context and Evolution
         2. Planning Commission's Role (Historical Context)
         3. Allocation Process
         4. Transition to Norm-based Allocation
   3. Government Spending on Social Sectors
      1. Education
         1. Investment in Public Schools
         2. Higher Education Funding
         3. Scholarships and Educational Grants
         4. Impact on Literacy Rates and Skill Development
      2. Health
         1. Funding for Public Health Services
         2. Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
         3. Insurance Schemes and Subsidies
         4. Role in Reducing Health Inequality
      3. Social Security
         1. Structure of Welfare Programs
         2. Unemployment Benefits
         3. Pensions and Old Age Benefits
         4. Ensuring Social Safety Nets
      4. Infrastructure
         1. Investment in Transportation Networks
         2. Utilities and Public Works Projects
         3. Housing and Urban Development
         4. Role in Economic Competitiveness
   4. Public Goods and Services
      1. Characteristics of Public Goods
         1. Non-rivalry and Non-excludability
         2. Market Provision vs Government Provision
      2. Differences between Public and Private Goods
         1. Analysis of Public Goods Problems
         2. Role of Government in Provision
      3. Examples of Public Goods
         1. National Defense
         2. Public Safety
         3. Environmental Protection
   5. The Role of Government Expenditure in Fiscal Policy
      1. Stimulating Economic Activity
      2. Redistribution of Income
      3. Addressing Market Failures
   6. Economic Theories on Government Expenditure
      1. Keynesian Perspective
         1. Multiplier Effect
         2. Impact on Aggregate Demand
      2. Classical and Neoclassical Views
      3. Public Choice Theory and Expenditure Decision-making
   7. Efficiency and Accountability in Government Spending
      1. Mechanisms for Monitoring and Evaluation
      2. Reducing Waste and Corruption
      3. Transparency in Budgetary Allocations
      4. Public Participation in Expenditure Decisions
   8. Challenges in Managing Government Expenditure
      1. Balancing Growth and Stability
      2. Addressing Fiscal Deficits
      3. Impact of Political Cycles on Spending
      4. Coping with Demographic and Social Changes