Nuclear Physics

1. Radioactive Decay
   1. Types of Decay
      1. Alpha Decay
         1. Description
            1. Emission of Helium nucleus
            2. Reduction in atomic number by two and mass number by four
         2. Alpha Particle Properties
            1. High mass and charge
            2. Low penetration ability
            3. High ionizing power
         3. Real-world Examples
            1. Decay of Uranium-238
            2. Decay of Polonium-210
      2. Beta Decay
         1. Description
            1. Transformation of a neutron to a proton or vice versa
            2. Emission of beta particles (electrons or positrons)
         2. Beta-minus Decay
            1. Emission of an electron and an antineutrino
            2. Increase in atomic number by one
            3. Example: Decay of Carbon-14
         3. Beta-plus Decay
            1. Emission of a positron and a neutrino
            2. Decrease in atomic number by one
            3. Example: Decay of Fluorine-18
         4. Beta Decay Characteristics
            1. Moderate penetration ability
            2. Moderate ionizing power
      3. Gamma Decay
         1. Description
            1. Emission of gamma rays
            2. State of nucleus after alpha or beta decay
         2. Properties of Gamma Rays
            1. High energy electromagnetic radiation
            2. High penetration ability
            3. Low ionizing power
         3. Example: Decay of Cobalt-60
      4. Spontaneous Fission
         1. Description
            1. Division of heavy nucleus into smaller fragments
            2. Emission of neutrons and radiation
         2. Fissionable Elements
            1. Uranium-235
            2. Plutonium-239
         3. Energetic Profile
            1. Release of large amounts of energy
            2. Neutron-induced chain reactions
      5. Electron Capture
         1. Description
            1. Capture of an orbital electron by the nucleus
            2. Conversion of a proton to a neutron
         2. Result and Effects
            1. Decrease in atomic number by one
            2. Emission of X-rays or Auger electrons
         3. Example: Capture in Beryllium-7
   2. Decay Chains
      1. Definition
         1. Series of successive radioactive decays
         2. Progression to stable isotopes
      2. Uranium Series
         1. Start with Uranium-238
         2. Involves isotopes like Thorium-234, Protactinium-234
         3. Ends with Lead-206
      3. Thorium Series
         1. Start with Thorium-232
         2. Involves isotopes like Radium-228, Actinium-228
         3. Ends with Lead-208
      4. Actinium Series
         1. Start with Uranium-235
         2. Involves isotopes like Thorium-231, Protactinium-231
         3. Ends with Lead-207
   3. Half-life and Decay Constants
      1. Half-life
         1. Definition: Time taken for half the nuclei to decay
         2. Variation across isotopes: Milliseconds to billions of years
      2. Decay Constant
         1. Definition: Probability of decay per unit time
         2. Relationship with half-life: Inversely proportional
         3. Mathematical formulation: λ = ln(2)/half-life
      3. Applications
         1. Radiometric dating
         2. Nuclear medicine
   4. Decay Energy Calculations
      1. Q Value
         1. Definition: Energy released during decay
         2. Calculated from mass difference using E=mc²
      2. Energy Partitioning
         1. Distribution among decay products
         2. Kinetic energy to alpha or beta particles
         3. Recoil energy to nucleus
      3. Measurements
         1. Use of mass spectrometers
         2. Calorimeters for radiations