Molecular Biology

1. Molecular Biology and Genetics
   1. Gene Expression Regulation
      1. Operons
         1. Definition and components
         2. Lac operon: structure and function
         3. Trp operon: mechanism of attenuation
         4. Inducible and repressible systems
      2. Transcriptional Control
         1. Promoters and enhancers
         2. Transcription factors and binding sites
         3. Chromatin remodeling and its impact on gene expression
         4. Role of non-coding RNAs in transcriptional regulation
      3. Post-Transcriptional Control
         1. Alternative splicing
         2. RNA editing and modifications
         3. mRNA transport and localization
         4. Regulation by microRNAs and siRNAs
         5. mRNA stability and degradation pathways
   2. Epigenetics
      1. DNA Methylation
         1. Mechanisms and enzymes involved
         2. Impact on gene expression and silencing
         3. Role in development and differentiation
         4. Connections to disease states, such as cancer
      2. Histone Modification
         1. Types of modifications (acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination)
         2. Histone code hypothesis
         3. Enzymes involved in modifying histones
         4. Effects on chromatin structure and gene accessibility
      3. Epigenetic Inheritance
         1. Mechanisms of transmitting epigenetic marks
         2. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
         3. Influence on evolution and adaptation
   3. Genetic Mutations and Repair
      1. Mutation Types and Consequences
         1. Point mutations, insertions, deletions
         2. Frameshift mutations and their effects on protein coding
         3. Silent, missense, and nonsense mutations
         4. Mutagenic agents and mutagenesis processes
      2. DNA Repair Mechanisms
         1. Direct repair, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair
         2. Mismatch repair systems
         3. Homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining
         4. Role of repair pathways in maintaining genomic integrity
         5. Disorders associated with defective repair mechanisms
   4. Genetic Inheritance
      1. Mendelian Genetics
         1. Laws of segregation and independent assortment
         2. Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
         3. Pedigree analysis for Mendelian traits
      2. Non-Mendelian Patterns
         1. Incomplete dominance and codominance
         2. Polygenic inheritance and quantitative traits
         3. Environmental effects on gene expression
         4. Linkage and genetic mapping
         5. Epistasis and gene interactions
   5. Genomics
      1. Genome Sequencing
         1. Techniques and technologies for sequencing (Sanger, next-generation sequencing)
         2. Challenges in assembling and annotating genomes
         3. Applications of whole-genome sequencing
      2. Comparative Genomics
         1. Identifying homologous genes and evolutionary relationships
         2. Applications in identifying gene functions and evolutionary conservation
         3. Study of genetic diversity within and between species
      3. Functional Genomics
         1. Transcriptomics: study of RNA transcripts
         2. Proteomics and interactions networks
         3. Systems biology approaches to understanding complex traits and diseases
      4. Population Genomics
         1. Genetic variation and population structure
         2. Selection, drift, and gene flow in populations
         3. Applications in conservation and evolutionary biology