Microbiology

1. Microbial Genetics
   1. DNA Replication and Repair
      1. Structure of DNA
         1. Double helix
         2. Nucleotide composition
         3. Base pairing: A-T, C-G
      2. Replication Process
         1. Origin of replication
         2. Role of enzymes: helicase, DNA polymerase, primase, ligase
         3. Leading and lagging strands
         4. Okazaki fragments
         5. Replication fork dynamics
      3. DNA Repair Mechanisms
         1. Mismatch repair
         2. Base excision repair
         3. Nucleotide excision repair
         4. Double-strand break repair: homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining
         5. SOS response in bacterial DNA repair
   2. Gene Expression and Regulation
      1. Transcription
         1. RNA polymerase and promoter regions
         2. Initiation, elongation, termination processes
         3. Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription
      2. Translation
         1. Ribosome structure and function
         2. Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
         3. Genetic code and codon-anticodon pairing
         4. Polypeptide chain formation
      3. Regulation of Gene Expression
         1. Operons: lac operon, trp operon
         2. Role of transcription factors and repressors
         3. Post-transcriptional modifications
         4. Epigenetic changes and their implications
   3. Plasmids and Mobile Genetic Elements
      1. Plasmid Characteristics
         1. Circular DNA, autonomous replication
         2. Copy number, host range
         3. Conjugative vs. non-conjugative plasmids
      2. Plasmid Functions
         1. Antibiotic resistance
         2. Metabolic activities
         3. Virulence factors
      3. Mobile Genetic Elements
         1. Transposons: insertion sequences, composite transposons
         2. Integrons and gene cassettes
         3. Bacteriophages and gene transfer mechanisms
   4. Recombination and Genetic Exchange
      1. Horizontal Gene Transfer
         1. Transformation: uptake of naked DNA
         2. Conjugation: F plasmid and sex pilus
         3. Transduction: generalized and specialized
      2. Importance in Adaptation and Evolution
         1. Gene spread in microbial communities
         2. Antibiotic resistance dissemination
         3. Impact on microbial diversity
   5. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
      1. Recombinant DNA Technology
         1. Cloning vectors, restriction enzymes, ligation
         2. Expression systems: bacterial, yeast, mammalian
      2. CRISPR-Cas Systems
         1. Mechanism of action
         2. Applications in gene editing
         3. Ethical implications and controversies
      3. Applications of Microbial Genetics
         1. Development of GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)
         2. Production of pharmaceuticals: insulin, vaccines
         3. Bioproducts: enzymes, biofuels
         4. Environmental applications: bioremediation, biosensors