Evolutionary Biology

1. Evolutionary Processes
   1. Adaptive Radiation
      1. Definition and Mechanism
         1. Rapid diversification of a single ancestral species
         2. Exploitation of new ecological niches
         3. Often follows environmental changes or mass extinctions
      2. Examples
         1. Galapagos finches
         2. Hawaiian honeycreepers
         3. Cichlid fish in African Great Lakes
      3. Factors Enabling Adaptive Radiation
         1. Ecological opportunities
         2. Morphological innovations
         3. Absence of competition
      4. Consequences
         1. Increased biodiversity
         2. Speciation and ecological diversity
   2. Convergent Evolution
      1. Definition and Mechanism
         1. Independent evolution of similar traits in distinct lineages
         2. Due to similar environmental pressures and challenges
      2. Examples
         1. Wings of bats and birds
         2. Echolocation in dolphins and bats
         3. Succulent plant structures in cacti and euphorbias
      3. Factors Contributing to Convergence
         1. Similar ecological roles
         2. Parallel adaptive challenges
      4. Implications
         1. Challenges in phylogenetic reconstruction
         2. Importance in understanding evolutionary constraints
   3. Coevolution
      1. Definition and Mechanism
         1. Reciprocal evolutionary changes in interacting species
         2. Driven by mutualistic, antagonistic, or competitive interactions
      2. Examples
         1. Pollinators and flowering plants
         2. Predator-prey relationships
         3. Host-parasite dynamics
      3. Types of Coevolution
         1. Mutualistic coevolution
         2. Antagonistic (evolutionary arms race)
         3. Specific vs. diffuse coevolution
      4. Outcomes
         1. Increased specialization
         2. Evolutionary innovations and dependencies
   4. Sexual Selection
      1. Definition and Mechanism
         1. A mode of natural selection arising from preferences for specific traits in mate choice
         2. Can lead to exaggerated traits and behaviors
      2. Types of Sexual Selection
         1. Intersexual selection (mate choice)
         2. Intrasexual selection (competition among same sex)
      3. Examples and Manifestations
         1. Peacock's vibrant tail feathers
         2. Deer antlers in male sparring
         3. Bird song and courtship displays
      4. Implications for Evolution
         1. Sexual dimorphism
         2. Influence on reproductive success
         3. Potential for conflict with natural selection (e.g., survival costs)
      5. Evolutionary Dynamics
         1. Runaway selection
         2. Handicap theory
         3. Sensory bias and preference evolution