Ecology and Environmental Biology

1. Species Distribution
   1. Biogeography
      1. Historical biogeography
         1. Continental drift and plate tectonics
         2. Glacial and interglacial cycles
         3. Evolutionary history and speciation
      2. Ecological biogeography
         1. Current species ranges
         2. Ecological niches and habitats
         3. Climate influence on distribution patterns
      3. Island biogeography
         1. Theory of island biogeography
         2. Influence of island size and distance from mainland
   2. Factors Influencing Distribution
      1. Biotic Factors
         1. Predation and herbivory
         2. Competition
         3. Mutualistic relationships
         4. Habitat availability and resource distribution
      2. Abiotic Factors
         1. Climate variables (temperature, precipitation)
         2. Soil types and quality
         3. Water availability and quality
         4. Topography and landforms
         5. Light availability and photoperiod
   3. Dispersal and Colonization
      1. Mechanisms of dispersal
         1. Wind dispersal
         2. Water dispersal
         3. Animal-mediated dispersal
         4. Human-mediated dispersal and introductions
      2. Colonization processes
         1. Establishment of populations
         2. Genetic variation and founder effects
         3. Interaction with local biota and ecosystems
      3. Barriers to dispersal
         1. Geographic barriers such as mountains and oceans
         2. Biological barriers like unsuitable climate zones
         3. Anthropogenic barriers such as urban developments and roads
   4. Patterns of Distribution
      1. Endemism
         1. Factors leading to endemism
         2. Conservation importance of endemic species
         3. Examples of endemic hotspots
      2. Cosmopolitan Distribution
         1. Characteristics of cosmopolitan species
         2. Adaptive traits of widely distributed species
         3. Human impact on distribution and spread
      3. Disjunct Distribution
         1. Causes of disjunct distributions
            1. Historical and geological events
            2. Climate changes and shifts
         2. Implications for genetic diversity
         3. Conservation challenges and strategies