Ecology and Environmental Biology

1. Ecosystems
   1. Types of ecosystems
      1. Terrestrial ecosystems
         1. Forest ecosystems
            1. Tropical rainforests
            2. Temperate forests
            3. Boreal forests (taiga)
            4. Forest floor biodiversity
            5. Canopy layer interactions
            6. Human impacts on forests
         2. Grassland ecosystems
            1. Prairies
            2. Savannas
            3. Steppe regions
            4. Fire ecology in grasslands
            5. Grazing and grassland dynamics
            6. Conservation challenges in grasslands
         3. Desert ecosystems
            1. Hot deserts
            2. Cold deserts
            3. Adaptations of desert flora and fauna
            4. Water conservation strategies
            5. Desertification and its challenges
         4. Tundra ecosystems
            1. Arctic tundra
            2. Alpine tundra
            3. Permafrost dynamics
            4. Plant and animal adaptations to cold
            5. Impacts of climate change on tundra
      2. Aquatic ecosystems
         1. Freshwater ecosystems
            1. Lakes
               1. Limnology
               2. Thermal stratification
               3. Eutrophication issues
            2. Rivers and streams
               1. River continuum concept
               2. Riparian zones
               3. Impact of dams and flow regulation
            3. Wetlands
               1. Peatlands
               2. Marshes
               3. Swamps
               4. Wetland conservation and management
         2. Marine ecosystems
            1. Oceans
               1. Major oceanic zones (pelagic, benthic)
               2. Ocean currents and their ecological impacts
               3. Deep sea ecosystems
            2. Coral reefs
               1. Coral symbiosis and bleaching
               2. Reef biodiversity
               3. Threats to coral reefs
            3. Estuaries
               1. Brackish ecosystems
               2. Nutrient dynamics
               3. Estuarine biodiversity and conservation
   2. Ecosystem dynamics
      1. Energy flow in ecosystems
         1. Photosynthesis and primary productivity
         2. Energy transfer efficiency
         3. Food chain dynamics
      2. Nutrient cycling
         1. Carbon cycle
            1. Sources and sinks
            2. Impact of human activities on the carbon cycle
         2. Nitrogen cycle
            1. Nitrogen fixation processes
            2. Human-induced alterations (fertilizers, pollution)
         3. Phosphorus cycle
            1. Role in aquatic ecosystems
            2. Eutrophication from phosphorus runoff
         4. Water cycle
            1. Global hydrological processes
            2. Anthropogenic effects on the water cycle
      3. Trophic levels and food webs
         1. Autotrophs, herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers
         2. Keystone species and ecological balance
         3. Impact of apex predators on ecosystem stability
   3. Ecosystem services
      1. Provisioning services
         1. Food production and supply
         2. Water availability and purification
         3. Raw materials and genetic resources
      2. Regulating services
         1. Climate regulation
         2. Disease regulation
         3. Flood and erosion control
      3. Cultural services
         1. Ecotourism and recreation
         2. Spiritual and historical significance
         3. Educational and scientific opportunities
      4. Supporting services
         1. Soil formation and fertility
         2. Pollination and seed dispersal
         3. Biodiversity maintenance and habitats