Computer Architecture

1. Instruction Set Design
   1. Types of Instructions
      1. Data Movement Instructions
         1. Load and Store Instructions
         2. Move Instructions
         3. Input/Output Instructions
      2. Arithmetic and Logic Instructions
         1. Integer Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division)
         2. Floating-Point Arithmetic
         3. Bitwise Operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
         4. Shift and Rotate Instructions
      3. Control Flow Instructions
         1. Unconditional Jumps
         2. Conditional Branches (Based on Flags and Condition Codes)
         3. Procedure Calls and Returns
         4. Loop Control Instructions
   2. Addressing Modes
      1. Immediate Addressing
         1. Directly Specifies Operand
      2. Direct Addressing
         1. Uses Memory Address in Instruction
      3. Indirect Addressing
         1. Uses Address Pointer Register
      4. Indexed Addressing
         1. Uses Base Address with Index Offset
      5. Register Addressing
         1. Operand is in a Register
      6. Relative Addressing
         1. Uses Program Counter as Base
      7. Base-Plus-Offset Addressing
         1. Combines Base and Displacement
      8. Stack Addressing
         1. Operands are Implicitly on the Stack
   3. Instruction Pipelining
      1. Pipeline Stages
         1. Fetch
         2. Decode
         3. Execute
         4. Memory Access
         5. Write Back
      2. Types of Hazards
         1. Data Hazards
            1. Read After Write (RAW)
            2. Write After Read (WAR)
            3. Write After Write (WAW)
         2. Control Hazards
            1. Branch Prediction Techniques
         3. Structural Hazards
      3. Pipeline Optimization Techniques
         1. Instruction Reordering
         2. Superscalar and Out-of-Order Execution
         3. Speculative Execution
   4. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT)
      1. Basics of SMT
         1. Thread-Level Parallelism
         2. Support for Multiple Threads in a Single Core
      2. Advantages of SMT
         1. Better CPU Utilization
         2. Increased Throughput
      3. SMT Challenges
         1. Resource Conflicts
         2. Complexity in Thread Management
      4. Techniques in SMT
         1. Fine-Grained Multithreading
         2. Coarse-Grained Multithreading
   5. Instruction Set Extensions
      1. SIMD Extensions
         1. Multimedia Instruction Set Extensions
      2. Cryptographic Extensions
      3. Virtualization Extensions
   6. Evolution of Instruction Sets
      1. Early Instruction Sets
         1. Stack-Based Instruction Sets
         2. Accumulator-Based Instructions
      2. Modern Instruction Set Architectures
         1. RISC vs. CISC Debate
         2. Hybrid Architectures
      3. Emerging Instruction Set Innovations
         1. Reduced Power Consumption Techniques
         2. Support for AI and Machine Learning Instructions
   7. Compilers and Instruction Set Optimization
      1. Role of Compilers in ISA Optimization
      2. Instruction Scheduling
      3. Loop Unrolling
      4. Vectorization and Parallelization Instructions
   8. Real-World Applications of Instruction Sets
      1. High-Performance Computing
      2. Embedded Systems
      3. Mobile and Consumer Electronics
   9. Future Directions in Instruction Set Design
      1. Integration of AI and Machine Learning Workloads
      2. Instruction Sets for Quantum Computing
      3. Role of Open-Source ISAs (e.g., RISC-V)