Child Development

1. Theories of Child Development
   1. Cognitive Developmental Theories
      1. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
         1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
            1. Substages
               1. Reflexive Schemes
               2. Primary Circular Reactions
               3. Secondary Circular Reactions
               4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions
               5. Tertiary Circular Reactions
               6. Mental Representation
            2. Developmental Milestones
               1. Object Permanence
               2. Deferred Imitation
            3. Impact on Later Development
               1. Basis for Early Problem Solving
         2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
            1. Characteristics
               1. Symbolic Function Substage
               2. Intuitive Thought Substage
            2. Key Concepts
               1. Egocentrism
               2. Centration
               3. Pretend Play
               4. Animism
            3. Criticisms and Revisions
               1. Underestimation of Children's Abilities
         3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
            1. Developmental Advances
               1. Logical Thinking
               2. Conservation Tasks
               3. Classification Skills
            2. Limitations
               1. Abstract Thinking Challenges
            3. Educational Implications
               1. Importance of Concrete Materials
         4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and beyond)
            1. Features
               1. Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
               2. Abstract Logic
            2. Varied Individual Development
               1. Not All Children Reach This Stage
            3. Implications for Adolescent Education
               1. Enhanced Problem-Solving Activities
      2. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
         1. Key Concepts
            1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
            2. Scaffolding Mechanisms
         2. Role of Language in Cognitive Development
            1. Private Speech
            2. Social Interactions as Learning Tools
         3. Influence of Culture
            1. Cultural Tools and Symbol Systems
            2. Collaborative Learning
         4. Critiques and Modern Adaptations
            1. Integration with Modern Education Practices
            2. Limited Focus on Biological Influences
   2. Psychoanalytic Theories
      1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
         1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
            1. Focus on Oral Gratification
            2. Impact on Personality (e.g., Oral Fixation)
         2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
            1. Toilet Training
            2. Anal Retentive vs. Anal Expulsive Personalities
         3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
            1. Oedipus/Electra Complex
            2. Development of Conscience
         4. Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
            1. Sexual Impulses Dormant
            2. Focus on Social and Intellectual Skills
         5. Genital Stage (Puberty onward)
            1. Mature Sexual Orientation
            2. Balancing Social and Sexual Needs
      2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
         1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
            1. Secure Attachment
            2. Trust in Caregivers
         2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Early Childhood)
            1. Encouraging Independence
            2. Effects of Over-Protectiveness
         3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)
            1. Role of Play in Initiating Activities
            2. Balance Between Initiative and Impulsiveness
         4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)
            1. Mastery of Skills
            2. Influence of School Environment
         5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
            1. Exploration of Personal Identity
            2. Impact of Peer Groups
         6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
            1. Formation of Close Relationships
            2. Importance of Emotional Connections
   3. Behaviorism
      1. Classical Conditioning
         1. Pavlov's Experiments
         2. Application in Understanding Phobias
      2. Operant Conditioning
         1. Skinner’s Experiments
         2. Reinforcement and Punishment Concepts
         3. Behavior Modification Techniques
   4. Social Learning Theory
      1. Bandura’s Theory
         1. Observational Learning
         2. Role of Modeling
      2. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
         1. Concept of Imitation
         2. Influence of Aggressive Models
      3. Implications for Development
         1. Media Influence on Behavior
         2. Importance of Role Models in Learning